Timeline

A boy is buried in the predynastic cemetery of El Amrah, Upper Egypt, with a bladder stone in his pelvis. disputed

Prologue: A Stone in a Jar Watch 0:09 in the film stone

Source: Waldron 2000, The study of the human remains from Nubia (Medical History 44:363-388) ; sci.news report of Dee et al. 2013 (radiocarbon chronology of early Egypt) ; Wikipedia: Naqada I ; EAU History Office: Cutting for the Stone

A relief in the tomb of Ankhmahor at Saqqara shows an operation usually read as circumcision. probable

I. The River Watch 3:35 in the film

Source: JTA Jewniverse 2016: The oldest circumcision in the world ; BAUS Virtual Museum: Ancient Egypt

Two people later mummified carry Schistosoma haematobium; its calcified eggs remain in their kidneys.

I. The River Watch 3:14 in the film urine

Source: Ruffer 1910, Note on the presence of 'Bilharzia haematobia' in Egyptian mummies of the Twentieth Dynasty (BMJ 1910;1:16) ; Wikipedia: Schistosoma haematobium ; Egyptian canopic jars at the crossroad of medicine and archaeology (review) dead link

The Sushruta Samhita, with its account of cutting for the stone, takes shape; its date is disputed. disputed

Sushruta II. The King's Permission Watch 4:33 in the film stone

Source: Didusch Museum newsletter: Breaking the Stone Age (2025) ; Bhishagratna, An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita, vol. II

Tradition credits Herophilus, in Alexandria, with naming the prostate; his own term, preserved in Galen, was 'glandular assistants'. disputed

IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 48:21 in the film prostate

Source: The Common Vein: history of the prostate dead link ; Wikipedia: Prostate ; Liddell-Scott-Jones Greek lexicon: adenoeides

Herophilus and Erasistratus dissect human bodies in Alexandria. probable

Erasistratus III. The Oath and the Ligature

Source: Wikipedia: Herophilos

In Alexandria, Ammonius splits bladder stones too large to extract, at the perineal wound. probable

Ammonius (Lithotomos) III. The Oath and the Ligature Watch 10:21 in the film stone

Source: Riches 1967, The history of lithotomy and lithotrity (Arnott Demonstration, RCS) ; Celsus, De Medicina 7.26, tr. W. G. Spencer (Perseids)

The House of the Surgeon at Pompeii is built.

III. The Oath and the Ligature

Source: Wikipedia: House of the Surgeon, Pompeii

Life of Celsus, whose De Medicina sets out the perineal lithotomy and bronze catheters. probable

Aulus Cornelius Celsus III. The Oath and the Ligature Watch 10:53 in the film stone, devices

Source: Riches 1967, The history of lithotomy and lithotrity (Arnott Demonstration, RCS) ; Celsus, De Medicina 7.26, tr. W. G. Spencer (Perseids)

Galen ties the ureters of a living animal and shows that the kidneys supply the bladder.

Galen of Pergamon III. The Oath and the Ligature Watch 13:21 in the film urine

Source: Galen, On the Natural Faculties I, tr. A. J. Brock (UCL Medicina Antiqua) ; Galen, On the Natural Faculties I, tr. A. J. Brock (LacusCurtius)

Theophilus writes De urinis and defines urine as the filtrate of the blood.

Theophilus Protospatharius IV. The Flask Watch 15:11 in the film urine

Source: Wallis 2000, Inventing diagnosis: Theophilus' De urinis in the classroom (Dynamis 20:31-73) ; EAU History Office: Uroscopy

al-Razi (Rhazes) compiles al-Hawi, which discusses urinary stones and their symptoms.

IV. The Flask urine, stone

Source: Ashtiyani and Cyrus 2010, Iran J Kidney Dis 4(2) dead link ; BAUS Virtual Museum: Rhazes (Iran stamp)

Isaac Israeli, physician at Qayrawan to the first Fatimid caliph, writes the Book of Urine (Kitab al-Bawl).

Isaac Israeli (Isaac Judaeus) IV. The Flask Watch 17:15 in the film urine

Source: Wikipedia: Isaac Israeli ben Solomon ; Posen Library: Isaac Israeli, Book of Urine ; Utrecht University Special Collections: De urinis by Isaac Israeli

al-Zahrawi's al-Tasrif illustrates about two hundred surgical instruments, among them a urethral stone drill, a silver catheter and a bladder syringe.

al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis, Albucasis) IV. The Flask Watch 16:35 in the film stone, devices

Source: Hektoen International: Abulcasis, the pharmacist-surgeon ; IEEE Pulse: Could al-Zahrawi be considered a biomedical engineer?

Ibn Sina's Canon of Medicine sets rules for a valid urine sample. probable

IV. The Flask urine

Source: Shamsi et al. 2014, Iran J Kidney Dis 8:278-285 dead link

Constantine the African translates Isaac Israeli's Book of Urine into Latin.

Isaac Israeli (Isaac Judaeus) IV. The Flask urine

Source: Posen Library: Isaac Israeli, Book of Urine ; Wikipedia: Isaac Israeli ben Solomon

Gerard of Cremona translates al-Tasrif into Latin. probable

al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis, Albucasis) IV. The Flask Watch 16:35 in the film devices

Source: Hektoen International: Abulcasis, the pharmacist-surgeon

Gilles de Corbeil, royal physician at Paris in the Salernitan tradition, writes his verse De urinis (352 verses) as a memory aid for students.

IV. The Flask urine

Source: Kelsey Museum exhibition: medieval medical manuscripts ; Maynooth University, Leigheas: manuscript of the month (Gilles de Corbeil)

Uroscopy is at the height of its prestige in learned medicine.

IV. The Flask urine

Source: JSTOR Daily: Early doctors diagnosed disease by looking at urine ; Big Think: medieval doctors and urine

William the Englishman, at Marseille, writes De urina non visa: when the urine cannot be seen, judge the patient by the sky at the hour of consultation. probable

IV. The Flask urine

Source: Medievalists.net: William the Englishman's De urina non visa

Johannes Zacharias Actuarius writes De urinis libri septem and advises a large, clean, transparent vessel shaped like a bladder. probable

IV. The Flask urine

Source: EAU History Office: Uroscopy ; Fredotovich 2002, Rev Arg Urol 67(4)

German (1280) and Catalan (1392) versions of Isaac Israeli's Book of Urine are made.

Isaac Israeli (Isaac Judaeus) IV. The Flask urine

Source: Posen Library: Isaac Israeli, Book of Urine

Petrarch mocks papal physicians for poring over chamber pots. probable

IV. The Flask urine

Source: Harvey, Troubled Waters (Public Domain Review)

The urine wheel of Bodleian MS Savile 39 sets out twenty flasks, from white to black. probable

IV. The Flask urine

Source: Harvey, Troubled Waters (Public Domain Review)

William the Englishman's De urina non visa is on the arts and medicine curriculum at Bologna. probable

IV. The Flask urine

Source: Medievalists.net: William the Englishman's De urina non visa

Fasciculus medicinae is first printed, at Venice, with a woodcut urine wheel.

IV. The Flask urine

Source: Royal College of Physicians Library: The urine wheel ; Wikipedia: Fasciculus medicinae ; Czech National Medical Library museum: Fasciculus medicinae

Ulrich Pinder's Epiphanie medicorum (Nuremberg) prints urine charts, coloured by hand. probable

IV. The Flask urine

Source: Atlas Obscura on Pinder's urine charts

De Romanis devises the Marian operation, with a grooved staff to guide the instruments.

de Romanis, Mariano Santo VI. The Stone-Cutters Watch 27:26 in the film stone, devices

Source: Riches 1967, The history of lithotomy and lithotrity (Arnott Demonstration, RCS) ; EAU History Office: The Marian method, the apparatus major

First publication of the Marian method by Mariano Santo, according to Riches, probably within a general surgical work. disputed

Mariano Santo VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: Riches 1967, The history of lithotomy and lithotrity (Arnott Demonstration, RCS) ; EAU History Office: The Marian method, the apparatus major

Mariano Santo's Libellus aureus de lapide a vesica per incisionem extrahendo is published in Venice.

Mariano Santo VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: EAU History Office: The Marian method, the apparatus major ; Wikipedia, Mariano Santo

Niccolò Massa, in Venice, gives the first plain description of the prostate in his Liber introductorius anatomiae.

Niccolò Massa IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 48:21 in the film prostate

Source: HistoryofMedicine.com: Niccolo Massa ; Wikipedia: Prostate ; Urology News: Prostatic fruit

Vesalius publishes the first illustration of the prostate, in the Tabulae Anatomicae Sex.

Andreas Vesalius IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 48:21 in the film prostate

Source: Urology News: Prostatic fruit ; The Common Vein: history of the prostate dead link

Ambroise Paré uses the word 'prostate' in print. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Wikipedia: Prostate

The Royal College of Physicians of London is said to forbid apothecaries to carry urine to physicians and to prescribe on urine alone. disputed

IV. The Flask urine

Source: corpus.nz: How to be a pisse-prophet ; Art & Object: uroscopy's sordid history ; Goddard, Uroscopy (Urology News)

John Caius keeps the Annals of the Royal College of Physicians; he is its president nine times. probable

John Caius IV. The Flask

Source: Wikipedia: John Caius

Laurent Colot, lithotomist of the Hôtel-Dieu, is named Operator of Stones to Henri II. probable

The Colot (Collot) family VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: Wikipedia: Laurent Colot

Pierre Franco removes a large stone from a two-year-old child by cutting above the pubis, the first suprapubic lithotomy on record. disputed

Pierre Franco VI. The Stone-Cutters Watch 28:07 in the film stone

Source: EAU History Office: Suprapubic lithotomy ; Embryo Project Encyclopedia: Pierre Franco (1505-1578) ; Riches 1967, The history of lithotomy and lithotrity (Arnott Demonstration, RCS) ; BAUS Virtual Museum: High approach

Franco's Petit traité contenant une des parties principalles de chirurgie is published in Lyon.

Pierre Franco VI. The Stone-Cutters

Source: Embryo Project Encyclopedia: Pierre Franco (1505-1578)

Franco's Traité des hernies is published; it describes the high operation.

Pierre Franco VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: Embryo Project Encyclopedia: Pierre Franco (1505-1578) ; Riches 1967, The history of lithotomy and lithotrity (Arnott Demonstration, RCS)

Irish-language copies of Gilles de Corbeil's verse De urinis are still being made.

IV. The Flask urine

Source: Maynooth University, Leigheas: manuscript of the month (Gilles de Corbeil)

Rousset of Montpellier describes the high operation and practises it on the cadaver. probable

VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: High approach

Petrus Forestus publishes De incerto, fallaci urinarum iudicio at Leiden, a dialogue against the uromancers.

IV. The Flask urine

Source: Hagströmer Library catalogue title for Petrus Forestus, De incerto, fallaci urinarum iudicio, Leiden, Plantin, 1589 (seen in a search result) ; Wikipedia (German): Harnschau

Shakespeare's Henry IV Part 2 jokes about the doctor who judges by the water.

William Shakespeare IV. The Flask Watch 17:34 in the film urine

Source: Shakespeare, Henry IV Part 2, 1.2 (Folger Shakespeare)

André du Laurens popularises the term 'prostate'. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Wikipedia: Prostate

John Cotta's A Short Discoverie of the Unobserved Dangers criticises uroscopy. probable

IV. The Flask urine

Source: corpus.nz: How to be a pisse-prophet

Thomas Hollier becomes free of the Barber-Surgeons' Company. probable

Thomas Hollier VI. The Stone-Cutters

Source: Worshipful Company of Barbers: Thomas Hollier

Thomas Brian publishes The Pisse-Prophet in London.

Thomas Brian IV. The Flask Watch 17:50 in the film urine

Source: Brian, The Pisse-Prophet (London, 1637), archive.org scan

Hollier becomes a surgeon at St Thomas's Hospital, a post he holds for 53 years. probable

Thomas Hollier VI. The Stone-Cutters

Source: Worshipful Company of Barbers: Thomas Hollier

Hollier takes the livery of the Barber-Surgeons' Company. probable

Thomas Hollier VI. The Stone-Cutters

Source: Worshipful Company of Barbers: Thomas Hollier

The word 'prostate' enters English, by way of French and Medieval Latin.

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Online Etymology Dictionary: prostate ; Wikipedia: Prostate

The House of Commons appoints Hollier its surgeon and "surgeon for the stone". probable

Thomas Hollier VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: Worshipful Company of Barbers: Thomas Hollier

Riolan's Anthropographia compares the prostate to kernels or nuts and states that a prostatic tumour can obstruct the bladder neck. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 48:51 in the film prostate

Source: Urology News: Prostatic fruit ; encolombia.com: history of prostatic hyperplasia (Spanish)

Jacques Beaulieu is born in Burgundy.

Jacques Beaulieu (Frère Jacques) VI. The Stone-Cutters

Source: EAU History Office: Jacques de Beaulieu ; Ganem and Carson 1999, Frère Jacques Beaulieu: from rogue lithotomist to nursery rhyme character (J Urol 161)

James Primrose's Popular Errours criticises uroscopy. probable

IV. The Flask urine

Source: corpus.nz: How to be a pisse-prophet

The Pisse-Prophet is reissued.

Thomas Brian IV. The Flask urine

Source: Brian, The Pisse-Prophet (1679 printing), archive.org scan

Samuel Pepys is cut for the stone by Thomas Hollier at his cousin Jane Turner's house in Salisbury Court, London.

Samuel Pepys, Thomas Hollier, Jane Turner VI. The Stone-Cutters Watch 31:53 in the film stone

Source: Pepys, Diary, 26 March 1660 (Wheatley edition) ; Worshipful Company of Barbers: Thomas Hollier ; Wikipedia, Samuel Pepys (including its footnote on the autopsy)

On board ship, Pepys marks the second anniversary of his operation and resolves to keep it as a festival for life.

Samuel Pepys, Jane Turner VI. The Stone-Cutters Watch 32:11 in the film stone

Source: Pepys, Diary, 26 March 1660 (Wheatley edition)

Pepys records his mother in growing pain from the stone.

Samuel Pepys VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: S. Pepys, Diary, November 1660, as transcribed by twentytrees

Pepys notes the third anniversary of his operation, still free from pain.

Samuel Pepys VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: Pepys, Diary, 26 March 1661 (Wheatley edition)

Lorenzo Bellini describes the tubules of the kidney. probable

V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: historyofmedicine.com listing for Lorenzo Bellini, Exercitatio anatomica de structura et usu renum, 1662

Pepys collects a case for his stone, costing 24 shillings.

Samuel Pepys VI. The Stone-Cutters Watch 32:23 in the film stone

Source: Pepys, Diary, Wheatley edition 1893 (pepysdiary.com), entry for 27 August 1664

Hollier finds a stone in the bladder of Pepys's servant boy Tom. probable

Samuel Pepys, Thomas Hollier VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: S. Pepys, Diary, 23 November 1664, as transcribed at allabouthistory.co.uk

Pepys records seven years since his operation and reports himself in very good health.

Samuel Pepys VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: Pepys, Diary, 26 March 1665 (Wheatley edition)

Bartholin describes the 'prostatae' as two kernels, commonly as big as a walnut. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 48:51 in the film prostate

Source: Urology News: Prostatic fruit ; Wikipedia: Prostate

Marcello Malpighi's De viscerum structura describes the small rounded bodies of the kidney, later called Malpighian corpuscles.

Marcello Malpighi V. What the Water Knew Watch 23:21 in the film urine

Source: Wikipedia: Marcello Malpighi (listed in research/02 §11)

Van Roonhuysen (1672) and Zambeccari (1678) report animals surviving the removal of one kidney. probable

VII. Breaking the Stone

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Nephrectomy

Hollier is Master of the Barber-Surgeons' Company. probable

Thomas Hollier VI. The Stone-Cutters

Source: Worshipful Company of Barbers: Thomas Hollier

Frederik Dekkers of Leiden reports that the urine of wasting patients coagulates with heat and gives a precipitate with acetic acid. disputed

V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Diamantis et al. 2008, J Urol 180:2330-2332 (text) ; Wellcome Collection catalogue: Dekkers, Exercitationes practicae (Leiden, 1694) ; historyofmedicine.com: Frederik Dekkers dead link

Thomas Willis's Pharmaceutice rationalis (Oxford) includes a chapter on excessive urination and diabetes.

Thomas Willis V. What the Water Knew Watch 19:16 in the film urine

Source: Willis, Pharmaceutice rationalis (Oxford, 1674), archive.org scan

The Oxford edition of Pharmaceutice rationalis states that the urine passed in diabetes is wonderfully sweet, and calls diabetes a disease of the blood rather than the kidneys.

Thomas Willis V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Willis, Pharmaceutice rationalis (Oxford, 1679), archive.org scan

The London Practice of Physick gives Willis's account in English, including the nobleman whose urine was sweet as though honey were mixed in it.

Thomas Willis V. What the Water Knew Watch 19:40 in the film urine

Source: Willis, The London Practice of Physick (London, 1685), archive.org scan

Frère Jacques arrives in Paris and operates in its hospitals with the lateral approach.

Jacques Beaulieu (Frère Jacques) VI. The Stone-Cutters Watch 28:46 in the film stone

Source: Cheselden, The Anatomy of the Human Body, 1741 (archive.org full text) ; EAU History Office: Jacques de Beaulieu ; Ganem and Carson 1999, Frère Jacques Beaulieu: from rogue lithotomist to nursery rhyme character (J Urol 161)

The view that the prostate is a single organ, not a pair, becomes current. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Wikipedia: Prostate

William Cheselden is admitted to the Barber-Surgeons' Company. probable

William Cheselden VI. The Stone-Cutters

Source: Wikipedia, William Cheselden ; Surgical Innovation 2020;27(5):543-548 (abstract), on Cheselden

Cheselden is elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.

William Cheselden VI. The Stone-Cutters

Source: Chalmers' Biographical Dictionary: William Cheselden ; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th edition (1860): Cheselden

Death of Jacques Beaulieu. Riches gives 7 December 1714; BAUS 1714; Ganem and Carson 1719; English Wikipedia 1720. disputed

Jacques Beaulieu (Frère Jacques) VI. The Stone-Cutters

Source: Riches 1967, The history of lithotomy and lithotrity (Arnott Demonstration, RCS) ; BAUS Virtual Museum: Jacques de Beaulieu dead link ; Ganem and Carson 1999, Frère Jacques Beaulieu: from rogue lithotomist to nursery rhyme character (J Urol 161) ; English Wikipedia, Jacques Beaulieu (death given as 1720)

James Douglas demonstrates to the Royal Society the anatomy that makes the high operation feasible (as dated by Cheselden).

VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: Cheselden, The Anatomy of the Human Body, 1741 (archive.org full text)

Cheselden joins St Thomas's Hospital as assistant surgeon.

William Cheselden VI. The Stone-Cutters Watch 30:14 in the film

Source: Chalmers' Biographical Dictionary: William Cheselden ; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th edition (1860): Cheselden

John Douglas devises his "new operation" from above the pubis; he publishes it in 1723. probable

VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: High approach

Francesco Roncalli-Parolino makes a flexible catheter of spiral silver covered with silk.

Francesco Roncalli-Parolino VI. The Stone-Cutters Watch 33:07 in the film devices

Source: Franklin to John Franklin, 8 December 1752, with editors' notes (Founders Online)

Cheselden publishes A Treatise on the High Operation for the Stone.

William Cheselden VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: High approach ; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th edition (1860): Cheselden

Cheselden takes up the lateral operation at St Thomas's: 1727 is the conventional date, while Tröhler dates a gradual start from August 1725. disputed

William Cheselden VI. The Stone-Cutters Watch 30:14 in the film stone

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: William Cheselden ; Wikipedia, William Cheselden ; James Lind Library: Cheselden's 1740 presentation of age-specific mortality after lithotomy (Tröhler)

François Colot's Traité de l'opération de la taille is published after his death. probable

The Colot (Collot) family VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: historyofmedicine.com: François Colot

Herman Boerhaave obtains urea from evaporated urine. probable

V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Wikipedia: Urea

In that year's edition of his Anatomy, Cheselden reports that the first 27 patients cut by the lateral method recovered. probable

William Cheselden VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: James Lind Library: Cheselden's 1740 presentation of age-specific mortality after lithotomy (Tröhler)

Cheselden becomes surgeon to St George's Hospital.

William Cheselden VI. The Stone-Cutters

Source: Chalmers' Biographical Dictionary: William Cheselden ; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th edition (1860): Cheselden

Cheselden becomes surgeon to Chelsea Hospital.

William Cheselden VI. The Stone-Cutters

Source: Chalmers' Biographical Dictionary: William Cheselden ; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th edition (1860): Cheselden

Cheselden publishes his St Thomas's series: 213 cut, 20 died, with a table by age.

William Cheselden VI. The Stone-Cutters Watch 30:36 in the film stone

Source: Cheselden, The Anatomy of the Human Body, 1741 (archive.org full text) ; James Lind Library: Cheselden's 1740 presentation of age-specific mortality after lithotomy (Tröhler)

The surgeons separate from the barbers; Cheselden plays a part in the separation. probable

William Cheselden VI. The Stone-Cutters

Source: Wikipedia, William Cheselden ; Surgical Innovation 2020;27(5):543-548 (abstract), on Cheselden

John Harmer of Norwich cuts John Howse, a gardener of 49, and removes a stone of nearly 15 ounces; Howse lives until April 1751. probable

VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: Thomas Morris, The foot-long bladder stone ; B. Gooch, Cases and Practical Remarks in Surgery, 1758 (as quoted by Thomas Morris)

Cheselden dies at Bath.

William Cheselden VI. The Stone-Cutters

Source: Chalmers' Biographical Dictionary: William Cheselden ; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th edition (1860): Cheselden

Robert Whytt publishes his Essay on the Virtues of Lime-Water in the Cure of the Stone, in Edinburgh.

VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: Franklin to John Franklin, 8 December 1752, with editors' notes (Founders Online)

Benjamin Franklin writes to his brother John about the flexible silver catheter he has had made.

Benjamin Franklin, John Franklin, Philip Syng VI. The Stone-Cutters Watch 32:44 in the film stone, devices

Source: Franklin to John Franklin, 8 December 1752, with editors' notes (Founders Online)

Benjamin Gooch's Cases and Practical Remarks in Surgery records Howse's stone as the largest on record from a living patient. probable

VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: B. Gooch, Cases and Practical Remarks in Surgery, 1758 (as quoted by Thomas Morris) ; Thomas Morris, The foot-long bladder stone

Morgagni's De Sedibus et Causis Morborum describes the normal prostate as the size of a small grape and the enlarged gland of elderly men as pear-shaped.

IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 48:51 in the film prostate

Source: Urology News: Prostatic fruit ; encolombia.com: history of prostatic hyperplasia (Spanish)

Domenico Cotugno, in a book on sciatica, describes urine that coagulates with heat in a soldier with dropsy.

V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Diamantis et al. 2008, J Urol 180:2330-2332 (text) ; Whonamedit: Domenico Cotugno dead link

Francesco La Vega excavates the House of the Surgeon at Pompeii.

III. The Oath and the Ligature

Source: Wikipedia: House of the Surgeon, Pompeii

The Norfolk and Norwich Hospital is founded, with Benjamin Gooch among its founders.

VI. The Stone-Cutters

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Norfolk and Norwich Hospital ; Thomas Morris, The foot-long bladder stone

The Norfolk and Norwich Hospital treats 1,498 bladder stone cases by operation and keeps every stone with its register. probable

VI. The Stone-Cutters Watch 26:39 in the film stone

Source: Batty Shaw 1979, East Anglian bladder stone (J R Soc Med 72) ; BAUS Virtual Museum: Norfolk and Norwich Hospital

A diabetic patient, aged 33 and passing 28 pints of urine a day, is admitted to Liverpool Infirmary, where Matthew Dobson studies him. probable

Matthew Dobson V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Diabetes on the Net: Diabesity, a historical perspective, part II ; Hektoen International: The pissing evil before insulin

Hilaire-Marin Rouelle obtains crystals containing urea by evaporating urine and treating the residue with alcohol.

V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Wikipedia: Urea ; Wikipedia: Hilaire Rouelle (listed in research/02 §11)

Norfolk has the highest incidence of bladder stone in Britain.

VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Norfolk and Norwich Hospital ; Thomas Morris, The foot-long bladder stone

Carl Wilhelm Scheele finds that urinary calculi contain a distinctive acid, later called uric acid. disputed

Carl Wilhelm Scheele V. What the Water Knew Watch 21:42 in the film stone, urine

Source: Pearson 1798, Experiments and observations on urinary concretions (Phil Trans, OCR) ; Wikipedia: Uric acid (listed in research/02 §11) ; Wikipedia: Carl Wilhelm Scheele (listed in research/02 §11)

Dobson publishes his experiments: evaporated diabetic urine leaves a sugary cake, and the serum is sweetish.

Matthew Dobson V. What the Water Knew Watch 19:45 in the film urine

Source: Dobson 1776, experiments on diabetic urine, Medical Observations and Inquiries (reprint, University of Pittsburgh)

The melody later known as "Frère Jacques" appears in a French manuscript under the name "Frère Blaise". probable

VI. The Stone-Cutters Watch 29:25 in the film

Source: Wikipedia, Frère Jacques (citing AllMusic and James Fuld)

John Hunter observes that castration of bulls makes the accessory glands small and tough. disputed

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Nicholson et al. 2022, Am J Clin Exp Urol (castration and the prostate, a history) ; Hunter, Observations on Certain Parts of the Animal Oeconomy (1840 Philadelphia edition) ; encolombia.com: history of prostatic hyperplasia (Spanish)

Carl Arnold Kortum writes against uroscopy. probable

IV. The Flask urine

Source: Wikipedia (German): Harnschau

William Hyde Wollaston identifies sodium urate in gouty concretions. probable

William Hyde Wollaston V. What the Water Knew stone

Source: EAU History Office: Diagnosis in the laboratory

George Pearson proposes 'uric' in place of 'lithic' for the acid of calculi.

V. What the Water Knew stone

Source: Pearson 1798, Experiments and observations on urinary concretions (Phil Trans, OCR)

Fourcroy and Vauquelin coin the word 'urea'. probable

V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Wikipedia: Urea

Scientific analysis of urine begins to displace uroscopy, which patients had kept asking for.

IV. The Flask Watch 18:45 in the film urine

Source: EAU History Office: Uroscopy ; Wikipedia (German): Harnschau

Comhaire removes kidneys from 65 dogs; two survive. probable

VII. Breaking the Stone

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Nephrectomy

Frankfurt admits Bozzini as a citizen, having first refused him because his means were small.

Philipp Bozzini VIII. Light

Source: Hock, Frankfurter Personenlexikon (2014): Bozzini, Philipp ; Stricker, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie vol. 3 (1876): Bozzini, Philipp (Wikisource)

Bozzini shows the Lichtleiter publicly for the first time, in Frankfurt.

Philipp Bozzini VIII. Light Watch 38:41 in the film endoscopy, devices

Source: Hock, Frankfurter Personenlexikon (2014): Bozzini, Philipp ; EAU History Office: Bozzini and the Lichtleiter

An announcement of the Lichtleiter appears in the Kaiserlich privilegirter Reichs-Anzeiger.

Philipp Bozzini VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: Hock, Frankfurter Personenlexikon (2014): Bozzini, Philipp ; Endourology Society history article: Philipp Bozzini, the father of endoscopy

Bozzini sends a description to Archduke Karl; through him the Emperor has an instrument bought and examined in Vienna.

Philipp Bozzini VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: Hock, Frankfurter Personenlexikon (2014): Bozzini, Philipp ; Permanent exhibition of the Josephinum (exhibition text)

Bozzini's article on the Lichtleiter appears in Hufeland's Journal der practischen Arzneykunde und Wundarzneykunst, vol. 24, pp. 107-124.

Philipp Bozzini VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: Springer 2023 article citing Bozzini 1806 ; Wallace 1973, New lamps for old (RSM presidential address; BAUS archive)

Bozzini demonstrates the instrument on living patients at Froriep's maternity institute in Halle; after a vaginal inspection Froriep orders a Lichtleiter of his own.

Philipp Bozzini VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: EAU History Office: Bozzini and the Lichtleiter ; Hock, Frankfurter Personenlexikon (2014): Bozzini, Philipp

The Lichtleiter reaches the Josephinum in Vienna, requested by its director, Anton von Beinl.

Philipp Bozzini VIII. Light Watch 39:43 in the film endoscopy, devices

Source: EAU History Office: Bozzini and the Lichtleiter ; EAU History Office: Ilg's Vienna model

Cadaver demonstration at the Josephinum before a large gathering; the instrument is found to meet every expectation.

Philipp Bozzini VIII. Light Watch 39:43 in the film endoscopy

Source: Medical University of Vienna alumni leaflet, December 2008 (archived) ; EAU History Office: Ilg's Vienna model

At an Academy session, Ilg's improved Viennese model is judged superior to Bozzini's original. probable

Johann Georg Ilg VIII. Light Watch 39:43 in the film endoscopy, devices

Source: EAU History Office: Ilg's Vienna model ; Medical University of Vienna alumni leaflet, December 2008 (archived)

The University of Vienna medical faculty rejects the Lichtleiter; the wording of its verdict is disputed.

Philipp Bozzini VIII. Light Watch 40:10 in the film endoscopy

Source: Hock, Frankfurter Personenlexikon (2014): Bozzini, Philipp ; Medical University of Vienna alumni leaflet, December 2008 (archived) ; Wikipedia (de): Philipp Bozzini

Bozzini publishes a reply to the Vienna faculty's remarks in the Allgemeiner Anzeiger der Deutschen.

Philipp Bozzini VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: Hock, Frankfurter Personenlexikon (2014): Bozzini, Philipp

Bozzini's folio monograph Der Lichtleiter, with copper engravings, is published in Weimar.

Philipp Bozzini VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: Stricker, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie vol. 3 (1876): Bozzini, Philipp (Wikisource) ; Hock, Frankfurter Personenlexikon (2014): Bozzini, Philipp ; P. Bozzini, Der Lichtleiter oder Beschreibung einer einfachen Vorrichtung und ihrer Anwendung zur Erleuchtung innerer Höhlen und Zwischenräume des lebenden animalischen Körpers (Weimar: Landes-Industrie-Comptoir, 1807)

Date of Ilg's own report on the Viennese model; Peter Paul Figdor found it in a Viennese archive in 2001. probable

Johann Georg Ilg VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: EAU History Office: Ilg's Vienna model

Bozzini is appointed Physicus extraordinarius in Frankfurt, on Dalberg's recommendation.

Philipp Bozzini VIII. Light

Source: Hock, Frankfurter Personenlexikon (2014): Bozzini, Philipp ; Stricker, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie vol. 3 (1876): Bozzini, Philipp (Wikisource)

Bozzini dies of typhus in Frankfurt, aged 35, after an epidemic in which he is recorded as saving 42 patients.

Philipp Bozzini VIII. Light Watch 40:16 in the film

Source: Hock, Frankfurter Personenlexikon (2014): Bozzini, Philipp ; Stricker, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie vol. 3 (1876): Bozzini, Philipp (Wikisource) ; EAU History Office: Philipp Bozzini, biography ; Endourology Society history article: Philipp Bozzini, the father of endoscopy

Wollaston's paper on 'cystic oxide', a new kind of urinary calculus, is read; it appears in the Philosophical Transactions.

William Hyde Wollaston V. What the Water Knew Watch 21:42 in the film stone

Source: Wollaston 1810, on cystic oxide, a new species of urinary calculus (Phil Trans, OCR)

The "Frère Jacques" melody is first printed. probable

VI. The Stone-Cutters

Source: Wikipedia, Frère Jacques (citing AllMusic and James Fuld)

Gruithuisen shows that straight instruments can be passed into the male bladder. probable

VII. Breaking the Stone stone, devices

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Transurethral bladder stone treatment

Civiale begins his experiments on crushing stones. probable

Jean Civiale VII. Breaking the Stone stone, devices

Source: Riches 1967, The history of lithotomy and lithotrity (Arnott Demonstration, RCS)

Alexander Marcet praises the Norwich register as a model of regular and orderly management. probable

VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Norfolk and Norwich Hospital

William Prout determines the composition of urea and purifies it. probable

V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Wikipedia: Urea

Leroy d'Étiolles presents the lithoprione, which held the stone in sprung wires and drilled it. probable

VII. Breaking the Stone stone, devices

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Transurethral bladder stone treatment

Civiale operates on 43 patients and claims 42 successes. probable

Jean Civiale VII. Breaking the Stone stone

Source: H. W. Herr, Civiale, stones and statistics: the dawn of evidence-based medicine, BJU Int 2009;104(3):300-302

Civiale crushes a bladder stone through the urethra of a living patient, in Paris. disputed

Jean Civiale VII. Breaking the Stone Watch 33:47 in the film stone, devices

Source: Riches 1967, The history of lithotomy and lithotrity (Arnott Demonstration, RCS) ; BAUS Virtual Museum: Transurethral bladder stone treatment ; EAU History Office, Exhibit of the month: the Civiale set

Civiale reports to the Académie des sciences. probable

Jean Civiale VII. Breaking the Stone stone

Source: EAU History Office, Exhibit of the month: the Civiale set

Richard Bright gathers the 23 cases of his first volume of Reports at Guy's Hospital. probable

Richard Bright V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Br J Hosp Med 2008;69(12):705 (on Bright)

Ségalas presents his speculum urethro-cystique to the Académie des sciences in Paris.

Pierre Salomon Ségalas VIII. Light Watch 40:51 in the film endoscopy, devices

Source: EAU History Office: Ségalas's speculum ; Wallace 1973, New lamps for old (RSM presidential address; BAUS archive)

Only three clinical cases with Ségalas's speculum are reported. probable

Pierre Salomon Ségalas VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: EAU History Office: Ségalas's speculum

John Dix Fisher of Boston describes a candle-lit endoscope, first for the vagina, later adapted for the bladder and urethra. disputed

VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: Hektoen International 2023: From candles and swallowing swords to gastroscopy ; Wikipedia: John Dix Fisher

Bright's Reports of Medical Cases links dropsy, urine that coagulates with heat, and diseased kidneys.

Richard Bright V. What the Water Knew Watch 20:41 in the film urine

Source: Bright, Reports of Medical Cases, vol. 1 (London, 1827), BIU Santé scan

Friedrich Wöhler reports the artificial formation of urea from cyanate and ammonia.

Friedrich Wöhler V. What the Water Knew Watch 22:29 in the film urine

Source: Wikipedia: Wöhler synthesis

Wöhler writes to Berzelius that he can make urea without kidneys.

Friedrich Wöhler, Berzelius V. What the Water Knew Watch 22:51 in the film urine

Source: Wikipedia: Friedrich Wöhler ; Wikipedia (German): Friedrich Wöhler

Heurteloup presents his percuteur, a lithotrite struck with a hammer. probable

Baron Heurteloup VII. Breaking the Stone Watch 33:47 in the film stone, devices

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Transurethral bladder stone treatment ; Riches 1967, The history of lithotomy and lithotrity (Arnott Demonstration, RCS)

John Green Crosse of Norwich wins the Jacksonian Prize. probable

VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: Batty Shaw 1979, East Anglian bladder stone (J R Soc Med 72)

Berzelius renames cystic oxide 'cystine'.

Berzelius V. What the Water Knew stone

Source: Wikipedia: Cystine

William Jeaffreson begins treating William Kent, aged 64, by lithotrity; he needs 37 sittings. probable

VII. Breaking the Stone Watch 35:59 in the film stone

Source: J. C. Goddard, Urology News history series (the high operation; lithotomy; lithotrity)

Poisson, Dulong, Larrey and Double report to the Académie des sciences on Civiale's statistics.

Siméon-Denis Poisson, Pierre-Louis Dulong, Dominique-Jean Larrey, François Double, Jean Civiale VII. Breaking the Stone Watch 34:53 in the film stone

Source: Poisson, Dulong, Larrey et Double, Recherches de statistique sur l'affection calculeuse, par M. le docteur Civiale. Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences 1835;1:167-177 ; James Lind Library: Poisson, Dulong, Larrey et Double 1835 ; Tröhler 2020, J R Soc Med 113(9):360-366

Poisson publishes on the law of large numbers. probable

Siméon-Denis Poisson VII. Breaking the Stone

Source: Tröhler 2020, J R Soc Med 113(9):360-366

At the Académie de médecine, Risueño d'Amador attacks the numerical method in medicine. probable

VII. Breaking the Stone

Source: Tröhler 2020, J R Soc Med 113(9):360-366

Jean Civiale praises the Norwich stone collection. probable

Jean Civiale VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Norfolk and Norwich Hospital

William Bowman's paper on the Malpighian bodies of the kidney is read: the glomerulus lies in a capsule continuous with the tubule, separating water while the tubule secretes the solids.

William Bowman V. What the Water Knew Watch 23:21 in the film urine

Source: Bowman 1842, On the structure and use of the Malpighian bodies of the kidney (Phil Trans, OCR)

All 41 beds under Bright's care at Guy's are given to renal cases. probable

Richard Bright V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Br J Hosp Med 2008;69(12):705 (on Bright)

Carl Ludwig publishes his filtration theory at Marburg. disputed

Carl Ludwig V. What the Water Knew Watch 23:55 in the film urine

Source: historyofmedicine.com (Garrison-Morton derived) entry on Carl Ludwig, Beiträge zur Lehre vom Mechanismus der Harnsecretion, Marburg, N. G. Elwert, 1843 ; Peña Rodríguez 2018, Acta Med Grupo Angeles 16(S1):S7-S15 (history of renal physiology) ; The year 1844 as recorded in the film's research: research/01_antiquity.md §6.3 uses it; research/02_uroscopy_and_urine.md §5.4 and §7 item 11 note it as often cited, possibly for a later handbook article

Bigelow publishes the first account of surgical operations under ether, in the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal.

Henry Jacob Bigelow VII. Breaking the Stone Watch 36:39 in the film

Source: H. J. Bigelow, Insensibility during surgical operations produced by inhalation, Boston Med Surg J 18 November 1846;35:309-317 (DOI 10.1056/NEJM184611180351601) ; Wikipedia, Henry Jacob Bigelow

Francis Adams's The Genuine Works of Hippocrates (Sydenham Society) gives the English Oath the film quotes.

Hippocrates III. The Oath and the Ligature

Source: Hippocrates, The Oath, tr. F. Adams (MIT Internet Classics Archive)

Theodor Bilharz finds the adult blood fluke at an autopsy at the Kasr el-Aini Hospital, Cairo. probable

Theodor Bilharz I. The River Watch 2:41 in the film urine

Source: Wikipedia: Schistosoma haematobium

Bilharz publishes the fluke under the name Distomum haematobium. probable

Theodor Bilharz I. The River urine

Source: Wikipedia: Schistosoma haematobium

Desormeaux shows his endoscope in Paris. disputed

Antonin Jean Desormeaux VIII. Light Watch 40:51 in the film endoscopy, devices

Source: Desormeaux, The Endoscope, and its Application to the Diagnosis and Treatment of Affections of the Genito-urinary Passages, tr. R. P. Hunt (Chicago, 1867) ; EAU History Office: Desormeaux's endoscope ; Nezhat, History of Endoscopy, chapter 8

Desormeaux shares the Argenteuil prize.

Antonin Jean Desormeaux VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: Desormeaux, The Endoscope, and its Application to the Diagnosis and Treatment of Affections of the Genito-urinary Passages, tr. R. P. Hunt (Chicago, 1867)

Josef Leiter opens his own instrument workshop in Vienna, opposite the Poliklinik.

Josef Leiter VIII. Light devices

Source: Wikipedia (de): Josef Leiter

Henry Thompson studies lithotrity with Civiale in Paris.

Henry Thompson, Jean Civiale VII. Breaking the Stone stone

Source: Plarr's Lives of the Fellows (RCS): Sir Henry Thompson

Erastus Bradley Wolcott performs an unplanned nephrectomy. probable

VII. Breaking the Stone

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Nephrectomy

Pasteur and Claude Bernard complete tests on blood and urine. probable

Epilogue: Look Again urine

Source: Wikipedia (French): Louis Pasteur

Desormeaux becomes surgeon at the Hôpital Necker.

Antonin Jean Desormeaux VIII. Light

Source: Desormeaux, The Endoscope, and its Application to the Diagnosis and Treatment of Affections of the Genito-urinary Passages, tr. R. P. Hunt (Chicago, 1867)

Auguste Nélaton's porcelain-tipped probe locates the bullet in Garibaldi's ankle; Nélaton is also credited with the soft rubber catheter (date not verified). probable

X. Without the Knife devices

Source: Wikipedia: Auguste Nelaton

Thompson treats King Leopold I of the Belgians by lithotrity, finishing a treatment Civiale had started a year and a half before.

Henry Thompson, Jean Civiale VII. Breaking the Stone stone

Source: Plarr's Lives of the Fellows (RCS): Sir Henry Thompson ; EAU History Office: Sir Henry Thompson

Henry Thompson calls the Norwich register the most complete record of its kind. probable

Henry Thompson VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Norfolk and Norwich Hospital

Pasteur shows that fresh blood or urine kept in sterilised air does not putrefy. probable

Epilogue: Look Again urine

Source: Wikipedia (French): Louis Pasteur

Desormeaux publishes De l'endoscope in Paris; R. P. Hunt's English translation follows in Chicago in 1867.

Antonin Jean Desormeaux VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: Desormeaux, The Endoscope, and its Application to the Diagnosis and Treatment of Affections of the Genito-urinary Passages, tr. R. P. Hunt (Chicago, 1867)

Francis Cruise of Dublin makes the endoscope flame brighter (wick on edge, camphor added) and encases the instrument in mahogany.

VIII. Light endoscopy, devices

Source: Wallace 1973, New lamps for old (RSM presidential address; BAUS archive)

Morell Mackenzie names the Lichtleiter the first laryngoscope, an early recognition of Bozzini.

Philipp Bozzini VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: Stricker, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie vol. 3 (1876): Bozzini, Philipp (Wikisource) ; Hock, Frankfurter Personenlexikon (2014): Bozzini, Philipp

Otto Spiegelberg removes a kidney by accident during ovarian surgery. probable

VII. Breaking the Stone

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Nephrectomy

Henry Thompson is knighted.

Henry Thompson VII. Breaking the Stone

Source: Plarr's Lives of the Fellows (RCS): Sir Henry Thompson

Julius Bruck, a Breslau dentist, uses a water-cooled platinum-wire lamp to transilluminate the mouth and, from the rectum, the bladder. probable

VIII. Light endoscopy, devices

Source: Wallace 1973, New lamps for old (RSM presidential address; BAUS archive) ; Roswell Park 1883 (NLM Digital Collections) ; Newell 1887, on the electric-light cystoscope (NLM Digital Collections)

At Freiburg, Adolf Kussmaul has a professional sword swallower take a straight rigid tube into the stomach; the light is too weak to see much.

VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: Brusis and Luckhaupt, Laryngorhinootologie 1991 (PubMed) ; Hektoen International 2023: From candles and swallowing swords to gastroscopy

Gustav Simon removes Margaretha Kleb's kidney in Heidelberg, a planned nephrectomy to cure a ureteric fistula.

Gustav Simon, Margaretha Kleb VII. Breaking the Stone Watch 38:10 in the film

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Nephrectomy ; Goddard and Birks, A short history of nephrectomy (Urology News) ; Wikipedia, Gustav Simon (surgeon)

Words and music of "Frère Jacques" are printed together in Paris. probable

VI. The Stone-Cutters

Source: Wikipedia, Frère Jacques (citing AllMusic and James Fuld)

Simon publishes Chirurgie der Nieren in two volumes.

Gustav Simon VII. Breaking the Stone

Source: Wikipedia, Gustav Simon (surgeon)

Bladder stone in the Norwich registers falls sharply.

VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: Batty Shaw 1979, East Anglian bladder stone (J R Soc Med 72)

Thompson examines the exiled Napoleon III at Camden Place, Chislehurst.

Henry Thompson, Napoleon III VII. Breaking the Stone stone

Source: Plarr's Lives of the Fellows (RCS): Sir Henry Thompson

Thompson performs lithotrity on Napoleon III under chloroform.

Henry Thompson, Napoleon III VII. Breaking the Stone Watch 35:59 in the film stone

Source: Plarr's Lives of the Fellows (RCS): Sir Henry Thompson ; Lanman Museum, account of Sir Henry Thompson

Thompson performs a second lithotrity on Napoleon III. disputed

Henry Thompson, Napoleon III VII. Breaking the Stone Watch 35:59 in the film stone

Source: Plarr's Lives of the Fellows (RCS): Sir Henry Thompson ; EAU History Office: Sir Henry Thompson

Napoleon III dies of uraemia an hour and a quarter before his third operation.

Napoleon III VII. Breaking the Stone Watch 35:59 in the film stone

Source: Plarr's Lives of the Fellows (RCS): Sir Henry Thompson ; Lanman Museum, account of Sir Henry Thompson

Josef Grünfeld in Vienna separates the light from the shaft, using sunlight or a petroleum burner and a head mirror; he is credited with the first ureteral catheterisation under endoscopic control, in women. probable

VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: EAU History Office: Grünfeld's endoscope

Thompson founds the Cremation Society.

Henry Thompson VII. Breaking the Stone

Source: Plarr's Lives of the Fellows (RCS): Sir Henry Thompson

Enrico Bottini, in Pavia, incises the prostate through the urethra without vision, using an electrically heated blade.

Enrico Bottini IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 51:07 in the film prostate, devices

Source: Urology News: The prostatic punch ; Didusch Museum: Resectoscopes

Rudolf Heidenhain's dye experiments revive the secretion theory.

Rudolf Heidenhain V. What the Water Knew Watch 23:55 in the film urine

Source: historyofmedicine.com (Garrison-Morton derived) entry on Rudolf Heidenhain, Versuche über den Vorgang der Harnabsonderung, 1874 ; Peña Rodríguez 2018, Acta Med Grupo Angeles 16(S1):S7-S15 (history of renal physiology)

Nitze becomes assistant at the Dresden City Hospital; the dusty-eyepiece story is placed in this year. probable

Maximilian Nitze VIII. Light Watch 42:02 in the film endoscopy

Source: Neue Deutsche Biographie: Nitze, Maximilian ; EAU History Office: Nitze's cystoscope

Nitze, with Alexander Schwede, demonstrates his urethroscope and cystoscope on a corpse at the Pathology Institute in Dresden.

Maximilian Nitze VIII. Light endoscopy, devices

Source: EAU History Office: Nitze's cystoscope ; Neue Deutsche Biographie: Nitze, Maximilian

Bigelow publishes Litholapaxy, or Rapid Lithotrity with Evacuation: the whole stone crushed and washed out at one sitting.

Henry Jacob Bigelow VII. Breaking the Stone Watch 37:01 in the film stone, devices

Source: Bigelow, Litholapaxy, or Rapid Lithotrity with Evacuation, 1878 (archive.org) ; Riches 1967, The history of lithotomy and lithotrity (Arnott Demonstration, RCS)

Nitze's collaboration with Leiter begins; after the first instruments prove unusable clinically, Nitze moves to Vienna to supervise the work. probable

Maximilian Nitze, Josef Leiter VIII. Light endoscopy, devices

Source: EAU History Office: Nitze's cystoscope ; Wallace 1973, New lamps for old (RSM presidential address; BAUS archive)

Dittel presents the Nitze-Leiter cystoscope, urethroscope and rectoscope on a living patient at the k.k. Gesellschaft der Ärzte in Vienna.

Leopold von Dittel, Maximilian Nitze, Josef Leiter VIII. Light Watch 42:40 in the film endoscopy, devices

Source: EAU History Office: Nitze's cystoscope ; Neue Deutsche Biographie: Nitze, Maximilian

Nitze describes the method in the Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift, vol. 29, no. 24. probable

Maximilian Nitze VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: M. Nitze, Eine neue Beobachtungs- und Untersuchungsmethode für Harnröhre, Harnblase und Rectum, Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift 29 (1879), Nr. 24, Sp. 649-652 (citation as given by de.wikipedia)

Edison files US patent 223,898 for an electric lamp (granted 27 January 1880).

Thomas Edison VIII. Light Watch 42:40 in the film devices

Source: Edison, US patent 223,898, Electric-Lamp (filed 4 November 1879)

Leiter publishes Elektro-endoskopische Instrumente in Vienna, describing the instruments built by Nitze and Leiter.

Josef Leiter VIII. Light endoscopy, devices

Source: J. Leiter, Elektro-endoskopische Instrumente. Beschreibung und Instruction zur Handhabung der von Dr. M. Nitze und J. Leiter construirten Instrumente (Wien: Braumüller, 1880) ; Wallace 1973, New lamps for old (RSM presidential address; BAUS archive)

Nitze, having left Vienna by December 1879, settles in Berlin. probable

Maximilian Nitze VIII. Light

Source: EAU History Office: Nitze's cystoscope

David Newman of Glasgow lights a female bladder with an incandescent bulb on a handle beside an open speculum, and sees and catheterises the ureters.

VIII. Light endoscopy, devices

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: David Newman ; Wallace 1973, New lamps for old (RSM presidential address; BAUS archive)

At the International Electrical Exhibition in Vienna, Leiter's attention is drawn to the carbon-filament lamp.

Josef Leiter VIII. Light devices

Source: Newell 1887, on the electric-light cystoscope (NLM Digital Collections)

Heidenhain concludes that secretion by the proximal tubule is the main process (one source's dating). probable

Rudolf Heidenhain V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Hektoen International: History of nephrology, the middle period

Leiter, with Dittel, and Nitze, with Hartwig in Berlin, each produce incandescent-lamp cystoscopes; in March 1887 Dittel shows Leiter's instruments to the Imperial Medical Society of Vienna.

Josef Leiter, Leopold von Dittel, Maximilian Nitze VIII. Light Watch 42:40 in the film endoscopy, devices

Source: Newell 1887, on the electric-light cystoscope (NLM Digital Collections) ; Wallace 1973, New lamps for old (RSM presidential address; BAUS archive) ; BAUS Virtual Museum: Cystoscopy

Arthur McGill, operating for bladder stone in Leeds, removes prostatic tissue: the first open prostatectomy in Britain.

Arthur Fergusson McGill IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 50:12 in the film prostate, stone

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Arthur Fergusson McGill dead link ; Urology News: Urology in Leeds ; BAUS Virtual Museum: Suprapubic prostatectomy

McGill performs a complete enucleation of the prostate.

Arthur Fergusson McGill IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Arthur Fergusson McGill dead link ; Urology News: Urology in Leeds

Otis K. Newell of Boston describes the lamp cystoscope and writes that a growth could be seen as plainly as a section under the microscope.

Otis K. Newell VIII. Light Watch 42:40 in the film endoscopy

Source: Newell 1887, on the electric-light cystoscope (NLM Digital Collections)

Howard Kelly learns ureteral catheterisation and air cystoscopy from Karel Pawlík in Prague.

VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: Wikipedia: Howard Atwood Kelly ; Wikipedia (cs): Karel Pawlík

Albarrán, with Hallé, describes the colon bacillus.

Joaquín Albarrán VIII. Light urine

Source: Wikipedia (fr): Joaquín Albarrán

At the British Medical Association meeting in Leeds, McGill presents patients holding their prostates in jars.

Arthur Fergusson McGill IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 50:12 in the film prostate

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Arthur Fergusson McGill dead link ; BAUS Virtual Museum: Suprapubic prostatectomy

Nitze publishes the Lehrbuch der Kystoskopie, the first cystoscopy textbook, and introduces an irrigation cystoscope; he habilitates in Berlin the same year.

Maximilian Nitze VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: EAU History Office: Nitze's cystoscope ; Neue Deutsche Biographie: Nitze, Maximilian

Brown-Séquard, aged 72, reports injecting himself with testicular extracts from guinea pigs and dogs.

X. Without the Knife

Source: Wikipedia: Charles-Edouard Brown-Sequard ; Nicholson et al. 2022, Am J Clin Exp Urol (castration and the prostate, a history)

William Belfield of Chicago, doing the same operation, credits McGill with the concept of total enucleation. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Suprapubic prostatectomy

McGill dies, of diabetes with carbuncles.

Arthur Fergusson McGill IX. The Gland That Stands Before

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Arthur Fergusson McGill dead link ; Urology News: Urology in Leeds

George Goodfellow is credited with the first perineal prostatectomy. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Didusch Museum: Benign prostatic hyperplasia

Nitze publishes an operating cystoscope with a galvanocautery wire loop for bladder tumours. probable

Maximilian Nitze VIII. Light endoscopy, devices

Source: EAU History Office: Nitze's cystoscope

J. William White, addressing the American Surgical Association, proposes castration for the enlarged prostate. probable

J. William White IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 49:24 in the film prostate

Source: Nicholson et al. 2022, Am J Clin Exp Urol (castration and the prostate, a history) ; Didusch Museum: Benign prostatic hyperplasia

Nitze's photographic cystoscope (1893) and his Kystophotographischer Atlas (1894).

Maximilian Nitze VIII. Light endoscopy, devices

Source: EAU History Office: Nitze's cystoscope

Eugene Fuller of New York publishes complete transvesical enucleation of the benign prostate.

Eugene Fuller IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 50:12 in the film prostate

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Suprapubic prostatectomy ; Wikipedia: Eugene Fuller

White reports 111 castrations for prostatic enlargement: rapid shrinkage in 87%, mortality 18%. probable

J. William White IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 49:24 in the film prostate

Source: Nicholson et al. 2022, Am J Clin Exp Urol (castration and the prostate, a history)

Röntgen discovers X-rays at Würzburg; his paper is published on 28 December 1895.

Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen VIII. Light Watch 44:06 in the film

Source: English Wikipedia entry on Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, as cited in dossier 04 §6.1 (no URL given in the kit)

Cabot presents 99 castrations for prostatic enlargement, reporting improvement in 84%. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Nicholson et al. 2022, Am J Clin Exp Urol (castration and the prostate, a history)

Fredrik Ramm's Norwegian dissertation on castration for prostatic hypertrophy.

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Wikipedia: Fredrik Ramm ; Tidsskriftet 2006: on testicles and urinary trouble (Norwegian)

John Macintyre gives the first X-ray demonstration in Scotland.

John Macintyre VIII. Light

Source: RCPSG heritage blog: Glasgow's contribution to radiology ; Urology News: Early British pioneers of urological imaging

With the managers' permission, Macintyre opens what is credited as the world's first hospital X-ray department, at Glasgow Royal Infirmary.

John Macintyre VIII. Light

Source: RCPSG heritage blog: Glasgow's contribution to radiology

Macintyre takes the first radiograph of a kidney stone in a living patient.

John Macintyre VIII. Light Watch 44:06 in the film stone

Source: RCPSG heritage blog: Glasgow's contribution to radiology ; Urology News: Early British pioneers of urological imaging

James Swain of Bristol reports that the X-ray shadows of stones vary with their composition. probable

VIII. Light stone

Source: Urology News: Early British pioneers of urological imaging

Albarrán's deflecting lever lets a ureteral catheter be steered into the ureteric orifice from the cystoscope. probable

Joaquín Albarrán VIII. Light Watch 43:24 in the film endoscopy, devices

Source: Wikipedia (fr): Joaquín Albarrán

Thompson is made a baronet.

Henry Thompson VII. Breaking the Stone

Source: Plarr's Lives of the Fellows (RCS): Sir Henry Thompson

David Randall-MacIver and Arthur C. Mace, with F. Ll. Griffith, excavate the El Amrah cemetery for the Egypt Exploration Fund.

Prologue: A Stone in a Jar

Source: Wikipedia: El-Amrah

Peter Freyer performs his first 'total enucleation' of the prostate at St Peter's Hospital, London.

Peter Freyer IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 50:12 in the film prostate

Source: EAU History Office: Sir Peter Freyer ; Wikipedia: Peter Freyer

Nitze becomes associate professor in Berlin.

Maximilian Nitze VIII. Light

Source: Neue Deutsche Biographie: Nitze, Maximilian

Grafton Elliot Smith takes up the chair of anatomy at the Government School of Medicine, Cairo.

Grafton Elliot Smith Prologue: A Stone in a Jar

Source: Waldron 2000, The study of the human remains from Nubia (Medical History 44:363-388) ; Archaeopress, Palaeopathology in Egypt and Nubia (sample)

Freyer publishes the operation in the BMJ as his own, provoking anger in America and in Leeds.

Peter Freyer IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 50:12 in the film prostate

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Suprapubic prostatectomy ; EAU History Office: Sir Peter Freyer

Elliot Smith finds the bladder stone in the first grave he examines at El Amrah. disputed

Grafton Elliot Smith Prologue: A Stone in a Jar Watch 0:31 in the film stone

Source: EAU History Office: Cutting for the Stone ; Didusch Museum newsletter: Breaking the Stone Age (2025) ; Archaeopress, Palaeopathology in Egypt and Nubia (sample)

Elliot Smith presents the El Amrah stone to the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England.

Grafton Elliot Smith Prologue: A Stone in a Jar stone

Source: EAU History Office: Cutting for the Stone ; Didusch Museum newsletter: Breaking the Stone Age (2025)

First documented use of Hugh Young's perineal prostatic tractor. probable

Hugh Hampton Young IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate, devices

Source: Didusch Museum: Benign prostatic hyperplasia

The Chiurazzi foundry, Naples, casts in bronze a male catheter found at Pompeii; the cast is now Penn Museum MS3594.

III. The Oath and the Ligature devices

Source: Penn Museum MS3594: cast of a male catheter found at Pompeii

Voelcker and Eugen Joseph introduce indigo carmine for the functional display of ureter and kidney.

Friedrich Voelcker VIII. Light urine

Source: Wikipedia (de): Friedrich Voelcker

Hugh Young, with William Stewart Halsted, performs the first radical perineal prostatectomy for cancer, at Johns Hopkins.

Hugh Hampton Young IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Wikipedia: Hugh H. Young ; Wikipedia: Radical prostatectomy ; Didusch Museum: Hugh Hampton Young

Henry Morris's Surgical Diseases of the Kidney and Ureter warns that X-rays may deter patients from surgical exploration. probable

Henry Morris VIII. Light Watch 44:41 in the film stone

Source: Urology News: Early British pioneers of urological imaging ; H. Morris, Surgical Diseases of the Kidney and Ureter (1904), as quoted in Urology News; the original page was not seen by the dossier

S. G. Shattock exhibits the El Amrah stone to the Pathological Society of London and describes it in its Transactions.

Prologue: A Stone in a Jar stone

Source: IFAO Early Egypt Bibliography entry for Shattock 1905 ; Wikipedia: Samuel George Shattock ; S. G. Shattock, A prehistoric or predynastic Egyptian calculus, Transactions of the Pathological Society of London 1905; 56:275-290

At Heidelberg, Voelcker and von Lichtenberg introduce retrograde pyelography with Collargol.

Friedrich Voelcker, Alexander von Lichtenberg VIII. Light Watch 45:23 in the film devices

Source: Wikipedia (de): Friedrich Voelcker ; Wikipedia (de): Alexander von Lichtenberg ; Moll F, Friedrich Voelcker, Alexander v. Lichtenberg: Pyelographie, Aktuelle Urologie 1995;26:70-74, doi:10.1055/s-2008-1057777 ; Urology News: Early British pioneers of urological imaging

Albarrán succeeds Guyon in the chair at the Hôpital Necker.

Joaquín Albarrán VIII. Light

Source: Wikipedia (fr): Joaquín Albarrán

Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna publishes his English translation of the Sushruta Samhita in Calcutta. probable

Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna II. The King's Permission

Source: Bhishagratna, An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita, vol. II

Edwin Hurry Fenwick's The Value of Radiography sets out 80 radiographs and 23 rules of interpretation. probable

VIII. Light stone

Source: Urology News: Early British pioneers of urological imaging

Endemic bladder stone has disappeared from Norfolk, and the Norwich collection stops.

VI. The Stone-Cutters Watch 26:39 in the film stone

Source: Batty Shaw 1979, East Anglian bladder stone (J R Soc Med 72) ; BAUS Virtual Museum: Norfolk and Norwich Hospital

Young introduces his prostatic punch.

Hugh Hampton Young IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 51:07 in the film prostate, devices

Source: Urology News: The prostatic punch ; Didusch Museum: Resectoscopes

Ruffer reports calcified 'Bilharzia haematobia' eggs in the kidneys of two Twentieth Dynasty mummies (BMJ).

Marc Armand Ruffer I. The River Watch 2:41 in the film urine

Source: Ruffer 1910, Note on the presence of 'Bilharzia haematobia' in Egyptian mummies of the Twentieth Dynasty (BMJ 1910;1:16) ; Emerging Infectious Diseases 1996 article citing Ruffer ; Egyptian canopic jars at the crossroad of medicine and archaeology (review) dead link

Cautery is added to Young's punch.

Hugh Hampton Young IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate, devices

Source: Urology News: The prostatic punch ; Didusch Museum: Resectoscopes

Hugh Hampton Young passes a paediatric cystoscope up the dilated ureter of a child with posterior urethral valves; the case is reported only in 1929. probable

Hugh Hampton Young VIII. Light Watch 43:24 in the film endoscopy

Source: Bagley, History of Ureteroscopy, in Ureteroscopy: A Comprehensive Contemporary Guide (Springer) ; Bagley chapter text: history of the development of ureteral endoscopy ; Whitehurst LA, Somani BK. Urolithiasis 2018 (as cited in dossier 03; no URL in the kit)

Albarrán is nominated for the Nobel Prize.

Joaquín Albarrán VIII. Light

Source: Wikipedia (fr): Joaquín Albarrán

Young reports the first clinically diagnosed posterior urethral valves (1913) and classifies them in three types (1919). probable

Hugh Hampton Young VIII. Light

Source: Kajbafzadeh, review of posterior urethral valves (Urol J)

The Brady Urological Institute opens at Johns Hopkins, funded by Young's patient 'Diamond Jim' Brady.

Hugh Hampton Young IX. The Gland That Stands Before

Source: Wikipedia: Hugh H. Young ; Didusch Museum: Hugh Hampton Young

A. J. Brock's Loeb translation of Galen's On the Natural Faculties appears.

Galen of Pergamon III. The Oath and the Ligature urine

Source: Galen, On the Natural Faculties I, tr. A. J. Brock (UCL Medicina Antiqua)

Young founds the Journal of Urology.

Hugh Hampton Young IX. The Gland That Stands Before

Source: Wikipedia: Hugh H. Young ; Didusch Museum: Hugh Hampton Young

Arthur Cushny publishes The Secretion of the Urine and calls his theory 'the modern view'.

Arthur Cushny V. What the Water Knew Watch 23:55 in the film urine

Source: Cushny, The Secretion of the Urine (London, 1917), archive.org scan

Carl Schmidt, working with Richards, watches the circulation of the living frog kidney under a low-power microscope.

Carl F. Schmidt, Alfred Newton Richards V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Schmidt 1971, NAS Biographical Memoir of Alfred Newton Richards

John Caulk introduces a cautery punch with an insulated sheath. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate, devices

Source: Urology News: The prostatic punch ; Didusch Museum: Resectoscopes

In Philadelphia the team watches Robert Chambers demonstrate micromanipulation; Wearn proposes using it to draw fluid from the glomerular space.

Joseph Treloar Wearn, Alfred Newton Richards V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Schmidt 1971, NAS Biographical Memoir of Alfred Newton Richards

Ruffer's Studies in the Palaeopathology of Egypt is published, describing three urinary calculi that Flinders Petrie found in a predynastic skeleton.

Marc Armand Ruffer I. The River stone

Source: Ruffer 1921, Studies in the Palaeopathology of Egypt (ed. Moodie)

Wearn and Richards give a preliminary report to the American Physiological Society; the frog-to-mammal objection is raised and Richards's reply wins an ovation.

Joseph Treloar Wearn, Alfred Newton Richards V. What the Water Knew Watch 25:43 in the film urine

Source: Schmidt 1971, NAS Biographical Memoir of Alfred Newton Richards

W. H. S. Jones's Loeb translation of the Oath reads the stone clause as a wider renunciation of the knife.

W. H. S. Jones III. The Oath and the Ligature Watch 9:23 in the film

Source: Hippocratic Oath, tr. W. H. S. Jones (Loeb 1923)

Moses Swick graduates MD from Columbia.

Moses Swick VIII. Light

Source: Wikipedia (de): Moses Swick ; Loughlin and Hawtrey 2003, Urology 62:385-9 (PubMed)

Wearn and Richards publish their observations on the composition of glomerular urine in the American Journal of Physiology.

Joseph Treloar Wearn, Alfred Newton Richards V. What the Water Knew Watch 24:53 in the film urine

Source: Wearn JT, Richards AN. Observations on the composition of glomerular urine, with particular reference to the problem of reabsorption in the renal tubules. Am J Physiol 1924;71(1):209-227. doi:10.1152/ajplegacy.1924.71.1.209

One series (Anthony) reports 2,500 litholapaxies. probable

VII. Breaking the Stone stone

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Transurethral bladder stone treatment

Kenneth Walker of London builds a punch with a Bakelite sheath, telescope and continuous irrigation. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate, devices

Source: Urology News: The prostatic punch

Wearn and Richards report chloride concentrations in frog glomerular urine.

Joseph Treloar Wearn, Alfred Newton Richards V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Wearn and Richards, J Biol Chem 1925;66:247-273

Maximilian Stern presents his resectoscope, with a high-frequency cutting loop, to the New York Academy of Medicine.

Maximilian Stern IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 51:07 in the film prostate, devices, endoscopy

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: TURP (transurethral resection of the prostate) ; Didusch Museum: Resectoscopes ; Urology News: TURP

Elliot Smith publishes 'The diversions of an anatomist in Egypt', recalling the boy's skeleton and its stone.

Grafton Elliot Smith Prologue: A Stone in a Jar Watch 0:43 in the film stone

Source: G. Elliot Smith, The diversions of an anatomist in Egypt, Cambridge University Medical School Magazine 1926; 5:34-39 (as quoted in Waldron 2000) ; Waldron 2000, The study of the human remains from Nubia (Medical History 44:363-388)

A second edition of Cushny's The Secretion of the Urine appears after his death. probable

Arthur Cushny V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Wikipedia: Arthur Robertson Cushny (listed in research/02 §11)

Swick's paper on intravenous urography with Uroselectan appears in Klinische Wochenschrift, followed by a joint clinical paper with von Lichtenberg.

Moses Swick, Alexander von Lichtenberg VIII. Light Watch 45:23 in the film devices

Source: Swick 1929, Darstellung der Niere und Harnwege im Röntgenbild durch intravenöse Einbringung eines neuen Kontraststoffes, des Uroselectans, Klin Wochenschr 8:2087-2089 ; von Lichtenberg and Swick 1929, Klinische Prüfung des Uroselectans, Klin Wochenschr 8:2089-2091

Von Lichtenberg presents the method at a meeting in Munich (1929) and at the AUA (1930).

Alexander von Lichtenberg VIII. Light Watch 46:05 in the film

Source: Wikipedia (de): Moses Swick ; Wikipedia (de): Alexander von Lichtenberg

Frederic Foley first describes his balloon catheter, for haemostasis after prostatectomy.

Frederic E. B. Foley X. Without the Knife Watch 57:49 in the film devices, prostate

Source: Wikipedia: Frederic Foley ; Wikipedia: Foley catheter

Swick's English account of intravenous urography appears in JAMA.

Moses Swick VIII. Light

Source: Swick M, JAMA 8 November 1930;95:1403-1409 (reprinted Mt Sinai J Med 2003, PubMed 12968201)

Theodore Davis shows films of transurethral resection with his two-current generator at the AUA meeting in Memphis.

Theodore M. Davis IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 51:07 in the film prostate, devices

Source: Didusch Museum: The transurethral prostatic resection technique of T. M. Davis ; BAUS Virtual Museum: TURP (transurethral resection of the prostate)

Joseph McCarthy combines Stern's loop, Davis's currents and his own lens in an insulated sheath: the Stern-McCarthy resectoscope.

Joseph F. McCarthy IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 51:07 in the film prostate, devices, endoscopy

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: TURP (transurethral resection of the prostate) ; Urology News: TURP ; Didusch Museum: Resectoscopes

Caulk and Kackley introduce an improved punch. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate, devices

Source: Urology News: The prostatic punch ; Didusch Museum: Resectoscopes

As general secretary of the German Chemical Society, Binz is instrumental in dismissing its Jewish employees.

Arthur Binz VIII. Light

Source: Wikipedia (de): Arthur Binz

Leopold Lichtwitz is forced out and emigrates to New York.

Leopold Lichtwitz VIII. Light

Source: German Wikipedia entry on Leopold Lichtwitz, as cited in dossier 04 §6.3 (no URL given in the kit)

Voronoy, in Kherson, transplants a kidney from a deceased donor; it fails. probable

X. Without the Knife

Source: Wikipedia: Kidney transplantation

Bordley and Richards publish quantitative studies of glomerular urine.

Alfred Newton Richards V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Bordley and Richards, J Biol Chem 1933;101:193-221

W. G. Spencer's Loeb translation of Celsus's De Medicina appears.

Aulus Cornelius Celsus III. The Oath and the Ligature

Source: Celsus, De Medicina 7.26, tr. W. G. Spencer (Perseids)

Foley demonstrates the balloon catheter to the American Urologists Society.

Frederic E. B. Foley X. Without the Knife devices

Source: Wikipedia: Frederic Foley ; Wikipedia: Foley catheter

C. R. Bard distributes the devices as 'Foley catheters'. probable

Frederic E. B. Foley X. Without the Knife Watch 57:49 in the film devices

Source: Wikipedia: Frederic Foley

Shannon and Smith measure the clearance of inulin in man, and Kaplan and Smith in the rabbit: a measure of glomerular filtration.

V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Shannon JA, Smith HW. The excretion of inulin, xylose and urea by normal and phlorizinized man. J Clin Invest 1935;14(4):393-401. doi:10.1172/jci100690 ; Kaplan and Smith, Am J Physiol 1935;113:354-360

Von Lichtenberg is dismissed from all his posts because of his Jewish ancestry.

Alexander von Lichtenberg VIII. Light Watch 46:30 in the film

Source: Wikipedia (de): Alexander von Lichtenberg

Paul Raiche of the Davol Rubber Company receives a patent on the balloon catheter. probable

Paul Raiche X. Without the Knife Watch 57:49 in the film devices

Source: Wikipedia: Frederic Foley

Foley applies for a patent, wins before the Patent Office Board of Appeals, and loses when Raiche's court appeal reverses the decision. probable

Frederic E. B. Foley, Paul Raiche X. Without the Knife Watch 57:49 in the film devices

Source: Wikipedia: Frederic Foley

Alexander Randall identifies papillary plaques, later thought to seed many calcium oxalate stones. probable

Epilogue: Look Again stone

Source: Wikipedia, as cited for Randall's plaques in research/03 §17 (URL not recorded in the kit)

After two heart attacks, Davis retires at 47.

Theodore M. Davis IX. The Gland That Stands Before

Source: Didusch Museum: The transurethral prostatic resection technique of T. M. Davis

Binz publishes his own history of Uroselectan in the Zeitschrift für Urologie. probable

Arthur Binz VIII. Light

Source: Wikipedia (de): Arthur Binz

Foley publishes 'A hemostatic bag catheter' in the Journal of Urology.

Frederic E. B. Foley X. Without the Knife devices

Source: Wikipedia: Frederic Foley ; F. E. B. Foley, A hemostatic bag catheter: one piece latex rubber structure for control of bleeding and constant drainage following prostatic resection, Journal of Urology 1937; 38:134-139 (title and citation as given on Wikipedia)

Reed Nesbit introduces a one-handed resectoscope worked by a spring. disputed

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate, devices

Source: Didusch Museum: Resectoscopes ; BAUS Virtual Museum: TURP (transurethral resection of the prostate)

Alexander and Ethel Gutman describe serum acid phosphatase in metastasising prostate cancer, the first serum marker for the disease.

Alexander B. Gutman, Ethel Benedict Gutman IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 53:08 in the film prostate

Source: Gutman and Gutman 1938, An 'acid' phosphatase occurring in the serum of patients with metastasizing carcinoma of the prostate gland (J Clin Invest 17:473-478)

In Britain, diathermy machines used for prostate resection are confiscated to block enemy radar. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before devices

Source: Urology News: TURP

Huggins and colleagues isolate the dog prostate and measure its secretion over months (J Exp Med).

Charles Brenton Huggins IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 52:08 in the film prostate

Source: Huggins, Masina, Eichelberger and Wharton 1939, Quantitative studies of prostatic secretion I (J Exp Med 70:543) ; Huggins, Nobel lecture, 13 December 1966

Von Lichtenberg emigrates via Budapest to Mexico, where he dies in 1949.

Alexander von Lichtenberg VIII. Light

Source: Wikipedia (de): Alexander von Lichtenberg

Huggins and Hodges report that castration or oestrogen lowers, and androgen raises, serum phosphatases in metastatic prostate cancer (Cancer Research).

Charles Brenton Huggins, Clarence Hodges IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 53:08 in the film prostate

Source: HistoryofMedicine.com: Huggins and Hodges 1941 (Cancer Res 1:293-297) ; Translational Cancer Research review of Huggins and Hodges 1941

Huggins, Stevens and Hodges report the effects of castration on advanced prostate cancer (Archives of Surgery). probable

Charles Brenton Huggins, Clarence Hodges IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: PMC review citing Huggins, Stevens and Hodges 1941

Rupel and Brown pass an endoscope through a surgical nephrostomy track and remove a stone under vision.

X. Without the Knife stone, endoscopy

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Nephroscopy and PCNL ; S. R. Patel, S. Y. Nakada, The modern history and evolution of percutaneous nephrolithotomy, Journal of Endourology 2014

Bombs strike the Royal College of Surgeons; over half of the 60,000 specimens in its museum are destroyed, the El Amrah stone among them.

Prologue: A Stone in a Jar Watch 1:04:43 in the film stone

Source: Royal College of Surgeons of England: Brief College History ; Hunterian Museum: the Hunterian collection dead link ; Riches 1967, The history of lithotomy and lithotrity (Arnott Demonstration, RCS)

Micropuncture work moves from frogs, snakes and Necturus to mammals. probable

Alfred Newton Richards V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Whonamedit: Alfred Newton Richards dead link

Willem Kolff builds an artificial kidney in Kampen, in the occupied Netherlands. probable

X. Without the Knife

Source: Wikipedia: Willem Johan Kolff

Baumrucker reverses the drive of Nesbit's resectoscope. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate, devices

Source: Didusch Museum: Resectoscopes

Terence Millin reports retropubic prostatectomy, a new extravesical technique, in 20 cases (The Lancet).

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Wikipedia: Terence Millin ; Didusch Museum: Benign prostatic hyperplasia

Karl Storz founds his firm in Tuttlingen.

Karl Storz VIII. Light devices

Source: Wikipedia (de): Karl Storz (Unternehmer)

Bozzini's original Lichtleiter disappears from Vienna; the circumstances are unknown. probable

Philipp Bozzini VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: EAU History Office: Bozzini and the Lichtleiter ; Medical University of Vienna alumni leaflet, December 2008 (archived)

After 15 patients treated with Kolff's artificial kidney have died, a 67-year-old woman recovers. probable

X. Without the Knife

Source: Wikipedia: Willem Johan Kolff

José Iglesias introduces a leaf-spring resectoscope drive; his continuous-flow resectoscope follows in the 1970s. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate, devices

Source: Didusch Museum: Resectoscopes ; BAUS Virtual Museum: TURP (transurethral resection of the prostate)

Hopkins designs a zoom lens for the BBC, used for televising sport. probable

Harold Hopkins VIII. Light

Source: Harold Hopkins Society history page (archived)

Brendler, Chase and Scott at Johns Hopkins find that endocrine therapy helps most patients' symptoms but is not the final answer.

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Brendler, Chase and Scott 1949 (Brady Urological Institute historical papers)

Hopkins publishes Wave Theory of Aberrations (Oxford University Press).

Harold Hopkins VIII. Light

Source: Wikipedia: Harold Hopkins (physicist)

Lawler, in Chicago, transplants a kidney into Ruth Tucker. probable

X. Without the Knife

Source: Wikipedia: Kidney transplantation

At a dinner party, the gastroenterologist Hugh Gainsborough's complaint about rigid gastroscopes prompts Hopkins to work on a flexible instrument. probable

Harold Hopkins VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: Harold Hopkins Society history page (archived)

Homer Smith publishes From Fish to Philosopher.

V. What the Water Knew

Source: Wikipedia: Homer W. Smith (listed in research/02 §11)

Hopkins and Kapany publish their flexible fibrescope in Nature; van Heel publishes in the same issue.

Harold Hopkins, Narinder Singh Kapany VIII. Light Watch 46:57 in the film endoscopy, devices

Source: Hopkins and Kapany 1954, A Flexible Fibrescope, using Static Scanning, Nature 173:39-41 ; Harold Hopkins Society history page (archived) ; Wikipedia: Harold Hopkins (physicist)

Bozzini's epitaph on the outer wall of Frankfurt Cathedral's choir is rediscovered (restored in 2006). probable

Philipp Bozzini VIII. Light

Source: Hock, Frankfurter Personenlexikon (2014): Bozzini, Philipp

At the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital, Boston, Harrison removes Ronald Herrick's kidney and Murray transplants it into his identical twin Richard.

Ronald Herrick, Richard Herrick, J. Hartwell Harrison, Joseph E. Murray X. Without the Knife Watch 58:33 in the film

Source: Wikipedia: Joseph Murray ; Wikipedia: Kidney transplantation ; Murray, Nobel lecture, 8 December 1990

Willard Goodwin describes percutaneous nephrostomy.

X. Without the Knife stone

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Nephroscopy and PCNL ; S. R. Patel, S. Y. Nakada, The modern history and evolution of percutaneous nephrolithotomy, Journal of Endourology 2014

Edward Kass publishes quantitative urine culture and the threshold of 100,000 bacteria per millilitre. probable

Edward H. Kass Epilogue: Look Again Watch 1:03:19 in the film urine

Source: Wikipedia: Edward H. Kass ; E. H. Kass, Asymptomatic infections of the urinary tract (1956), reprinted as a classic in Journal of Urology 2002; 167(2 Pt 2):1016-1020 ; E. H. Kass, Bacteriuria and the diagnosis of infections of the urinary tract, AMA Archives of Internal Medicine 1957; 100(5):709 (Crossref record 10.1001/archinte.1957.00260110025004)

First public showing of rod-lens images: at the SIU meeting in Rio de Janeiro with Gow (1961), or to BAUS in Glasgow (1956, three years before the patent filing and probably an error). disputed

Harold Hopkins VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: Harold Hopkins Society history page (archived) ; Wallace 1973, New lamps for old (RSM presidential address; BAUS archive)

Basil Hirschowitz, with Larry Curtiss and C. Wilbur Peters at the University of Michigan, demonstrates the first practical fibre gastroscope (shown 1957; published 1958).

VIII. Light endoscopy, devices

Source: Hirschowitz, Curtiss, Peters and Pollard 1958, Demonstration of a new gastroscope, the 'Fiberscope', Gastroenterology 35:50-53 ; Harold Hopkins Society history page (archived)

Hopkins files the British rod-lens patent application, GB 954,629.

Harold Hopkins VIII. Light endoscopy, devices

Source: Hopkins, GB patent 954,629, Improvements in or relating to optical systems (application 16 July 1959)

Karl Storz introduces an external cold-light source carried by fibre-optic cable.

Karl Storz VIII. Light Watch 47:42 in the film endoscopy, devices

Source: Wikipedia (de): Karl Storz (Unternehmer)

Kapany coins the term 'fiber optics' in Scientific American.

Narinder Singh Kapany VIII. Light

Source: English Wikipedia entry on Narinder Singh Kapany, as cited in dossier 04 §7.1 (no URL given in the kit)

The US rod-lens patent application is filed by W. Watson and Sons Ltd (US 3,257,902, granted 28 June 1966).

Harold Hopkins VIII. Light devices

Source: US patent 3,257,902, Optical system having cylindrical rod-like lenses (filed 14 July 1960)

GB patent 954,629 is published.

Harold Hopkins VIII. Light devices

Source: Hopkins, GB patent 954,629, Improvements in or relating to optical systems (application 16 July 1959)

Marshall first describes flexible endoscopic examination of the upper urinary tract. probable

X. Without the Knife endoscopy

Source: Cansino Alcaide et al. 2010, Arch Esp Urol 63:862-870

Huggins shares the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Peyton Rous; his Nobel lecture is given on 13 December.

Charles Brenton Huggins IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 53:44 in the film prostate

Source: Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1966: summary ; Huggins, Nobel lecture, 13 December 1966

Swick receives the Valentine Medal of the New York Academy of Medicine.

Moses Swick VIII. Light Watch 46:30 in the film

Source: Wikipedia (de): Moses Swick

Swick publishes his retrospective, 'The discovery of intravenous urography', in the Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine. probable

Moses Swick VIII. Light

Source: Swick M, Bull N Y Acad Med 1966;42:128-51 (PubMed 5321904)

A Dornier engineer touching a shock-wave target feels something like an electric shock, with no harm to the skin. probable

X. Without the Knife Watch 59:28 in the film stone

Source: Xu and Xu, history of shock wave lithotripsy (Atlantis Press) ; Malinaric et al., International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2023; 20(5):4127 ; Chaussy, Eisenberger and Forssmann 2007, Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy (ESWL): a chronology (J Endourol 21:1249-1253)

The Hopkins-Storz rod-lens cystoscope with cold light is presented at the SIU congress in Munich.

Harold Hopkins, Karl Storz VIII. Light Watch 47:42 in the film endoscopy, devices

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Cystoscopy ; Harold Hopkins Society history page (archived) ; Wikipedia (de): Karl Storz (Unternehmer)

E. Riches's Arnott Demonstration at the Royal College of Surgeons records that the stone was crushed and completely dispersed in 1941.

Prologue: A Stone in a Jar Watch 1:04:43 in the film stone

Source: Riches 1967, The history of lithotomy and lithotrity (Arnott Demonstration, RCS)

Richard Ablin reports precipitation antigens in the prostate. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Wikipedia: Prostate-specific antigen ; Wikipedia: Richard J. Ablin

William Matthews, editor of the diary, writes that seven stones were found in Pepys's left kidney after his death, and questions the tennis-ball comparison for his bladder stone.

Samuel Pepys VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: Matthews 1970, Pepys's pain (letter, New York Review of Books)

Andrew Schally's structure of LHRH, isolated from pig brains, is confirmed by synthesis.

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Schally, memoir in the Canadian Journal of Urology (Legends in urology, 2013) ; Wikipedia: Andrew Schally

Mitsuwo Hara describes gamma-seminoprotein in semen. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Wikipedia: Prostate-specific antigen

Takayasu makes the first documented examination with a flexible ureteroscopic instrument. probable

X. Without the Knife endoscopy

Source: Cansino Alcaide et al. 2010, Arch Esp Urol 63:862-870

Carl F. Schmidt's National Academy of Sciences memoir of Richards records the origin of micropuncture and the 1921 objection.

Carl F. Schmidt, Alfred Newton Richards V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Schmidt 1971, NAS Biographical Memoir of Alfred Newton Richards

Li and Beling describe the protein E1, in fertility research. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Wikipedia: Prostate-specific antigen

Dornier's Hepp and Hoff begin working with Schmiedt and Eisenberger of the Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich. probable

X. Without the Knife stone

Source: Chaussy, Eisenberger and Forssmann 2007, Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy (ESWL): a chronology (J Endourol 21:1249-1253)

Walsh arrives at Johns Hopkins; the course of the cavernous nerves is not known.

Patrick C. Walsh IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: EAU Today: Nerve-sparing radical prostatectomy, a European discovery? dead link

The experimental phase begins in Munich, with Chaussy, Eisenberger, Forssmann and Hepp; human stones are tested in the kidneys of dogs. probable

X. Without the Knife Watch 1:00:03 in the film stone

Source: Chaussy, Eisenberger and Forssmann 2007, Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy (ESWL): a chronology (J Endourol 21:1249-1253)

Later recognition for Swick: a doctorate conferred by the Free University of Berlin (1975), a New York City citation (1978) and a Society of Urology citation (1984).

Moses Swick VIII. Light

Source: Wikipedia (de): Moses Swick

Fernström and Johansson describe extraction of kidney stones through a percutaneous nephrostomy under radiological control.

X. Without the Knife Watch 1:00:55 in the film stone, endoscopy

Source: BAUS Virtual Museum: Nephroscopy and PCNL ; S. R. Patel, S. Y. Nakada, The modern history and evolution of percutaneous nephrolithotomy, Journal of Endourology 2014

Schally shares the Nobel Prize with Roger Guillemin and Rosalyn Yalow.

IX. The Gland That Stands Before

Source: Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1977: summary ; Wikipedia: Andrew Schally

Walsh meets Pieter Donker at a dinner during an international conference.

Patrick C. Walsh, Pieter Donker IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: EAU Today: Nerve-sparing radical prostatectomy, a European discovery? dead link ; Johns Hopkins Medicine 2024: Radical innovator

A patient of Walsh reports that his potency returned after radical prostatectomy.

Patrick C. Walsh IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 54:35 in the film prostate

Source: OncLive: Walsh's quest to understand male anatomy ; Johns Hopkins Medicine 2024: Radical innovator

Sensabaugh describes p30, a semen-specific protein of prostatic origin. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Wikipedia: Prostate-specific antigen

Arthur Smith coins the word 'endourology'. probable

X. Without the Knife endoscopy

Source: S. R. Patel, S. Y. Nakada, The modern history and evolution of percutaneous nephrolithotomy, Journal of Endourology 2014

A. Batty Shaw publishes his analysis of the Norwich operation registers.

VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: Batty Shaw 1979, East Anglian bladder stone (J R Soc Med 72)

Wang purifies prostate antigen from prostate tissue. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Wikipedia: Prostate-specific antigen

The HM1 ('Human Model 1') lithotripter prototype is built.

X. Without the Knife stone, devices

Source: Chaussy, Eisenberger and Forssmann 2007, Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy (ESWL): a chronology (J Endourol 21:1249-1253) ; Xu and Xu, history of shock wave lithotripsy (Atlantis Press)

Papsidero makes the first quantitative measurement of the antigen in serum. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Wikipedia: Prostate-specific antigen

First shock-wave treatment of a kidney stone in a patient, at the Munich University Hospital, Grosshadern.

X. Without the Knife Watch 1:00:03 in the film stone, devices

Source: Chaussy, Eisenberger and Forssmann 2007, Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy (ESWL): a chronology (J Endourol 21:1249-1253) ; Storz Medical: 40 years of ESWL ; Dornier: an important day in medical history ; Malinaric et al., International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2023; 20(5):4127

Chaussy, Brendel and Schmiedt report the first clinical results in The Lancet.

X. Without the Knife stone

Source: Chaussy, Eisenberger and Forssmann 2007, Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy (ESWL): a chronology (J Endourol 21:1249-1253)

Pérez-Castro, with Karl Storz, produces the first purpose-built rigid ureteroscope. probable

X. Without the Knife Watch 1:00:55 in the film stone, endoscopy, devices

Source: L. A. Whitehurst, B. K. Somani, Urolithiasis 2018 (history of ureteroscopy)

Laser lithotripsy is developed at Massachusetts General Hospital, first with pulsed dye lasers. probable

X. Without the Knife Watch 1:00:55 in the film stone, devices

Source: Wikipedia article on laser lithotripsy, as cited in research/03 §16 (URL not recorded in the kit)

In Leiden, Walsh and Donker trace the nerves of erection running outside the prostate.

Patrick C. Walsh, Pieter Donker IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 55:11 in the film prostate

Source: Johns Hopkins Medicine 2020: 40th anniversary of a lifesaving discovery ; Johns Hopkins Medicine 2024: Radical innovator ; EAU Today: Nerve-sparing radical prostatectomy, a European discovery? dead link

Wickham reports the first series of four percutaneous nephrolithotomies. probable

X. Without the Knife stone, endoscopy

Source: S. R. Patel, S. Y. Nakada, The modern history and evolution of percutaneous nephrolithotomy, Journal of Endourology 2014

Tolis and Schally, in Montreal, run the first clinical trial of LHRH agonists in advanced prostate cancer.

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Schally, memoir in the Canadian Journal of Urology (Legends in urology, 2013) ; Wikipedia: Andrew Schally

Walsh and Donker publish 'Impotence following radical prostatectomy: insight into etiology and prevention' (J Urol 128:492).

Patrick C. Walsh, Pieter Donker IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: EAU Today: Nerve-sparing radical prostatectomy, a European discovery? dead link

Walsh performs the first operation designed to spare the nerves, at Johns Hopkins.

Patrick C. Walsh IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 55:40 in the film prostate

Source: Johns Hopkins Medicine 2020: 40th anniversary of a lifesaving discovery ; OncLive: Walsh's quest to understand male anatomy ; EAU Today: Nerve-sparing radical prostatectomy, a European discovery? dead link

At Johns Hopkins, the share of men in their fifties choosing surgery is reported to rise from 7% to 70%. probable

Patrick C. Walsh IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Johns Hopkins Medicine 2020: 40th anniversary of a lifesaving discovery

The first lithotripsy centre opens in Munich. probable

X. Without the Knife stone

Source: Xu and Xu, history of shock wave lithotripsy (Atlantis Press) ; Chaussy, Eisenberger and Forssmann 2007, Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy (ESWL): a chronology (J Endourol 21:1249-1253)

Ronald Virag reports in The Lancet that papaverine injected into the penis produces erection. probable

X. Without the Knife

Source: Wikipedia: Ronald Virag

A second centre opens in Stuttgart; the HM3 becomes the first commercial lithotripter. probable

X. Without the Knife stone, devices

Source: Xu and Xu, history of shock wave lithotripsy (Atlantis Press)

Giles Brindley, lecturing in Las Vegas, demonstrates a drug-induced erection on himself to an audience of urologists. probable

X. Without the Knife

Source: Wikipedia: Giles Brindley ; Klotz 2005, How (not) to communicate new scientific information (BJU Int 96:956-957), Europe PMC record

In Pakistan the share of stone cases that were bladder stones is reported to fall from 70 to 18 per cent. probable

VI. The Stone-Cutters stone

Source: Pediatric Urology Book: Urolithiasis, bladder

The first lithotripter in the United States is installed, in Indianapolis.

X. Without the Knife stone, devices

Source: Xu and Xu, history of shock wave lithotripsy (Atlantis Press) ; Storz Medical: 40 years of ESWL ; Malinaric et al., International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2023; 20(5):4127

The US FDA approves shock-wave lithotripsy.

X. Without the Knife stone, devices

Source: Xu and Xu, history of shock wave lithotripsy (Atlantis Press) ; Storz Medical: 40 years of ESWL ; Malinaric et al., International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2023; 20(5):4127

About 200 HM3 machines are working worldwide. probable

X. Without the Knife stone, devices

Source: Malinaric et al., International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2023; 20(5):4127

VanTec, a disposable fibre-optic ureteroscope, appears: an early single-use instrument. probable

X. Without the Knife endoscopy, devices

Source: Bagley, History of ureteroscopy (Springer chapter)

The PUMA 560 robot is used for a CT-guided brain biopsy. probable

X. Without the Knife devices

Source: Wikipedia: Robot-assisted surgery

Hybritech releases the first commercial PSA test, the Tandem-R. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Wikipedia: Prostate-specific antigen

Stamey and colleagues propose PSA as a serum marker for prostate cancer and warn that neither PSA nor acid phosphatase is specific (NEJM).

Thomas A. Stamey IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 56:20 in the film prostate

Source: Stamey et al. 1987, Prostate-specific antigen as a serum marker for adenocarcinoma of the prostate (NEJM 317:909-916), Europe PMC abstract

PROBOT, built at Imperial College London, is developed for transurethral prostate surgery. probable

X. Without the Knife devices, prostate

Source: Wikipedia: Robot-assisted surgery

US national survey (NHANES) estimates kidney stone prevalence at 5.2%.

Epilogue: Look Again stone

Source: AUA guideline: Medical management of kidney stones (Pearle et al. 2014) dead link

Uribarri and colleagues report that at least half of people with a stone form another within ten years.

Epilogue: Look Again Watch 1:05:23 in the film stone

Source: AUA guideline: Medical management of kidney stones (Pearle et al. 2014) dead link

The first semi-rigid ureteroscope appears. probable

X. Without the Knife endoscopy, devices

Source: L. A. Whitehurst, B. K. Somani, Urolithiasis 2018 (history of ureteroscopy)

The European Randomized Study of Screening for Prostate Cancer (ERSPC) begins, eventually enrolling about 182,000 men in seven countries.

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: National Cancer Institute PDQ: Prostate cancer screening (health professional version)

Murray shares the Nobel Prize with E. Donnall Thomas; his Nobel lecture is given on 8 December.

Joseph E. Murray X. Without the Knife Watch 58:33 in the film

Source: Wikipedia: Joseph Murray ; Murray, Nobel lecture, 8 December 1990

Ralph Clayman's team performs the first laparoscopic nephrectomy, in St Louis.

Ralph V. Clayman X. Without the Knife Watch 1:01:15 in the film

Source: R. V. Clayman et al., Journal of Urology 1991; 146:278-282, and New England Journal of Medicine 1991; 324:1370-1371 (Europe PMC abstract, PMID 1830346) ; Wikipedia: Ralph Clayman

The first laparoscopic nephrectomy is published in the Journal of Urology and the NEJM.

Ralph V. Clayman X. Without the Knife

Source: R. V. Clayman et al., Journal of Urology 1991; 146:278-282, and New England Journal of Medicine 1991; 324:1370-1371 (Europe PMC abstract, PMID 1830346)

Schuessler and colleagues perform nine laparoscopic radical prostatectomies, with a mean operating time of 9.4 hours.

X. Without the Knife Watch 1:01:15 in the film prostate

Source: W. W. Schuessler, P. G. Schulam, R. V. Clayman, L. R. Kavoussi, Urology 1997; 50:854-857 (Europe PMC abstract, PMID 9426713) ; Wikipedia: Radical prostatectomy

The American PLCO trial enrols 76,693 men at ten centres.

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: National Cancer Institute PDQ: Prostate cancer screening (health professional version)

Holmium:YAG lasers become the standard for laser lithotripsy. probable

X. Without the Knife stone, devices

Source: Wikipedia article on laser lithotripsy, as cited in research/03 §16 (URL not recorded in the kit)

Intuitive Surgical is founded.

X. Without the Knife devices

Source: Intuitive: company history ; FDA 510(k) database: K990144 (da Vinci, cleared 11 July 2000)

Sildenafil, first studied for hypertension and angina, is patented. probable

X. Without the Knife

Source: Wikipedia: Sildenafil

Schuessler's team concludes that laparoscopic radical prostatectomy offers no advantage over open surgery (Urology).

X. Without the Knife prostate

Source: W. W. Schuessler, P. G. Schulam, R. V. Clayman, L. R. Kavoussi, Urology 1997; 50:854-857 (Europe PMC abstract, PMID 9426713)

The FDA approves sildenafil, the first oral treatment for erectile dysfunction in the United States. probable

X. Without the Knife

Source: Wikipedia: Sildenafil

Ganem and Carson report finding no direct link between Jacques Beaulieu and the nursery rhyme.

Jacques Beaulieu (Frère Jacques) VI. The Stone-Cutters Watch 29:25 in the film

Source: Ganem and Carson 1999, Frère Jacques Beaulieu: from rogue lithotomist to nursery rhyme character (J Urol 161)

Binder and Kramer perform the first robot-assisted radical prostatectomy, in Frankfurt.

X. Without the Knife Watch 1:01:15 in the film prostate, devices

Source: J. Binder, W. Kramer, Robotically-assisted laparoscopic radical prostatectomy, BJU International 2001; 87:408-410 ; Wikipedia: Robot-assisted surgery

The FDA clears the da Vinci system for general laparoscopic surgery (K990144).

X. Without the Knife devices

Source: FDA 510(k) database: K990144 (da Vinci, cleared 11 July 2000) ; Intuitive: company history

The 1835 report on Civiale's statistics is published in English translation in the International Journal of Epidemiology.

VII. Breaking the Stone

Source: English translation of the 1835 Académie report, Int J Epidemiol 2001;30(6):1246-1249 ; James Lind Library: Poisson, Dulong, Larrey et Double 1835

Binder and Kramer report robot-assisted radical prostatectomy in BJU International.

X. Without the Knife prostate, devices

Source: J. Binder, W. Kramer, Robotically-assisted laparoscopic radical prostatectomy, BJU International 2001; 87:408-410

A further da Vinci clearance (K011002) is listed under gastroenterology and urology.

X. Without the Knife devices

Source: FDA 510(k) premarket notification database, entry K011002, decision 30 May 2001

Kass's 1956 paper is reprinted as a classic in the Journal of Urology.

Edward H. Kass Epilogue: Look Again urine

Source: E. H. Kass, Asymptomatic infections of the urinary tract (1956), reprinted as a classic in Journal of Urology 2002; 167(2 Pt 2):1016-1020

Bozzini's original Lichtleiter, found in the basement of the American College of Surgeons in Chicago, is returned to Vienna. disputed

Philipp Bozzini VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: EAU History Office: Bozzini and the Lichtleiter ; Medical University of Vienna alumni leaflet, December 2008 (archived) ; Wikipedia (de): Philipp Bozzini

Karl Storz builds a replica of Ilg's Viennese model from Ilg's report. probable

Johann Georg Ilg VIII. Light endoscopy

Source: EAU History Office: Ilg's Vienna model

Klotz publishes an eyewitness memoir of the Brindley lecture (BJU Int).

X. Without the Knife

Source: Klotz 2005, How (not) to communicate new scientific information (BJU Int 96:956-957), Europe PMC record

NHANES estimates kidney stone prevalence at 8.8% (men 10.6%, women 7.1%), about 1 in 11 people.

Epilogue: Look Again stone

Source: AUA guideline: Medical management of kidney stones (Pearle et al. 2014) dead link ; NIDDK: Kidney stones, definition and facts

A digital nephroscope with a 1 mm camera and two LEDs is reported (Andonian et al.).

X. Without the Knife endoscopy, devices

Source: Andonian et al., Journal of Endourology 2008; 22:601 (PubMed 18419205)

ERSPC (benefit) and PLCO (no benefit) report in the NEJM.

IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 57:01 in the film prostate

Source: National Cancer Institute PDQ: Prostate cancer screening (health professional version)

Nelson and colleagues sequence bacterial 16S genes in voided urine from men. probable

Epilogue: Look Again urine

Source: Neugent et al. 2020, mBio (review of the urinary microbiome)

Lowrance and colleagues note that robotic prostatectomy has been adopted without high-quality evidence of advantage over open surgery.

X. Without the Knife Watch 1:02:20 in the film prostate, devices

Source: W. T. Lowrance et al. 2010, abstract read on Europe PMC (PMID 21103791)

Siddiqui and colleagues study urinary bacteria by sequencing. probable

Epilogue: Look Again urine

Source: Neugent et al. 2020, mBio (review of the urinary microbiome)

Wolfe and colleagues find bacterial DNA in catheter and suprapubic bladder urine from women.

Epilogue: Look Again Watch 1:03:56 in the film urine

Source: Wolfe et al. 2012, Evidence of uncultivated bacteria in the adult female bladder (J Clin Microbiol 50:1376-1383)

The US Preventive Services Task Force recommends against PSA-based screening (grade D).

IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 57:01 in the film prostate

Source: USPSTF 2012 recommendation: prostate cancer screening

Hilt and colleagues grow bacteria from 80% of catheter urine samples with expanded culture: 'Urine is not sterile'.

Epilogue: Look Again Watch 1:03:56 in the film urine

Source: Hilt et al. 2014, Urine is not sterile (J Clin Microbiol 52:871-876)

The AUA guideline on the medical management of kidney stones is published (Pearle et al.).

Epilogue: Look Again stone

Source: AUA guideline: Medical management of kidney stones (Pearle et al. 2014) dead link

Ablin argues that the FDA failed in its duty, its advisers having warned that routine PSA screening would be a public health disaster. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Wikipedia: Richard J. Ablin

A review in Advances in Physiology Education calls the filtration and secretion dispute an 80-year-old controversy.

V. What the Water Knew urine

Source: Resolving an 80-yr-old controversy: the beginning of the modern era of renal physiology, Advances in Physiology Education, 2014 (title and journal only)

The USPSTF makes PSA screening an individual decision for men aged 55 to 69 (grade C) and keeps grade D for men of 70 and over.

IX. The Gland That Stands Before Watch 57:01 in the film prostate

Source: USPSTF 2018 recommendation: prostate cancer screening

The FDA clears the single-port da Vinci SP (K173906) for urological procedures suited to a single port.

X. Without the Knife Watch 1:02:20 in the film devices

Source: FDA 510(k) K173906: da Vinci SP (2018)

The USPSTF's prostate cancer screening update, still in progress, is last revised.

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: USPSTF: prostate cancer screening update in progress

A Cochrane update covering more than 789,000 men concludes that screening likely reduces prostate cancer mortality. probable

IX. The Gland That Stands Before prostate

Source: Wikipedia: Prostate cancer screening